Doing so was (and remains) necessary because journalism education, like other facets of Hungarian society, has continued to undergo the fast-paced change that began in 1989. Once the media were state controlled, a single state-sponsored journalism trade school existed, and promotional communication for private entities was virtually non-existent. Now, independent publications have blossomed, and advertising and public relations agencies have flourished. Journalism curricula have developed so fast that the Ministry of Culture and Education does not have a complete, current inventory of programs or interest areas (Hiebert, 1994; Nagy, Juhász, and Végvári, 1994; Kommunikációs Szakmi Találkozó, 1995).

This media evolution has created concurrent need for change in the practice and teaching of journalism. One profound need is for the articulation of new philosophical principles. In former Communist countries such as Hungary, the tension between governmental self-preservation and freedom of the press produced a society in which the party-state owned the media and controlled media content. Except for underground newspapers, the government owned all means of production and helped choose and train the writers, editors, and reporters who became members of a select fraternity (Giorgi et. al., pps. 94; Vardy, pps. 25-26; Kováts and Tolgyesi, 1993).

Hungarian reporters, like those in Warren Breed’s newsroom, also had "unwritten rules" that further defined rights, responsibilities, and duties. Though the 1949 Hungarian constitution called for freedom of the press and the 1986 media law spoke of the right of the citizens to information, freedom of the press was guaranteed only if it were exercised in accordance with the interests of socialism (Underwood, p. 464; Pataki, 1986, p. 7; See also, Giorgi et. al., 1994). Practically speaking this meant that no reporter could question the country’s "socialist achievements or its national historical and moral" values under the "pretext of freedom of the press" (Pataki, 1986, p. 7; See, also, Giorgi et. al., 1994).

The big chill of the newsroom spilled into the practice of advertising. During the years of Communist rule, advertising had been regarded as neither proper nor necessary. Advertising, which decades of ideology had branded as "an unfair capitalistic method," was also rendered unnecessary as a revenue source because failing publications were subsidized with the profits from those that were successful (Hiebert, 1994; Vardy, 1992).

This has changed. Since the lifting of the Iron Curtain, the tyranny of the state has given way to the tyranny the marketplace and to an operating dictum that the press must be profitable to be free (Giorgi et. al., p. 32; Grunwald, p. 7; Jackson, 1990). In turn, the need to be profitable has led to a reappraisal of the way in which that information is gathered and presented, the philosophical basis upon which journalism education is based, and the way in which the media operate. With such profound changes, managers have been forced to search for ways to remain viable in the marketplace of ideas. While doing so, they have begun looking for workers with new skills and outlooks.

The delicate condition of Hungarian higher education has made finding these reporters, editors, and managers more difficult. Like other aspects of Hungarian society, institutions of higher education are in flux. These institutions suffer from too many part-time teachers and too many unfocused students and curricula. And, because too little money is available, higher education cannot provide living wages for faculty and staff, upgraded facilities and equipment, or even regular building maintenance. (See various issues of the Budapest Sun, Spring 1995, for more complete discussion; See, also, Lobo, 1995, Michaels, 1995.)

The task of journalism educators, who like their other academic brethren encounter financial woes, is complicated by the need to develop appropriate curricula. Fundamental to this development is a paradigm shift from an educational environment emphasizing sociology, political science, and socialist theory to that emphasizing skills applicable to a emerging marketplace in which Western media companies have a large interest.

While distinct cultural imperatives and writing genres should be preserved, a new generation of Hungarian journalists must learn fact-based reporting and writing, computer-based design, and management techniques for a host of activities ranging from advertising and public relations to management and research functions. This survey was designed to determine the status of Hungarian journalism students and provide guidance for future efforts. While the data has been gathered and presented carefully, no doubt deficiencies will become evident in a first study such as this.

Method

The American Journalism Center, Budapest, surveyed students at 10 Hungarian journalism programs throughout the country. The student study was administered in class by local educators. The sample had 138 respondents (approximately 38% of all known students known enrolled in journalism programs).

The student survey was divided into several sections. These sections included closed-end questions about demographics, professional experience, future career interest, reasons for taking courses, journalistic interests, and computer experience, as well as open-ended questions about why they wanted to go into journalism, what could be done to help them advance their careers, and what other courses they felt the school should offer.


Results

About 66% of the 144 student survey respondents were female and 33% were male. Mean age was 23.3, year in school was 2.5, and expected date of graduation was in 1997 for those enrolled as full-time students. About 51.2% of students worked and went to school. Of those who worked and went to school about 28.4% currently worked in journalism. About 53.5% of all students had once worked in journalism.

Of those who responded, 21.5% were Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem (ELTE) students taking courses under the aegis of the American Journalism Center, Budapest; 12.5% were from the Hungarian Department of ELTE; 11.1% were from József Attila Tudományegyetem, Szeged; 10.4% were from Kölcsey Ferenc Református Tanítóképzó Fó´iskola, Debrecen; 8.3% were from Magyar Újságírók Országos Szövetsége (MUOSZ), the former state journalism school; 6.9% were from Janus Pannonius Tudományegyetem, Pécs; 6.3% were from Budapest University of Economic Sciences; 3.5% were business students at the International Management Center; 2.8% were from Magyar Tudományos Akadémia -ELTE Kommunik-ációeknéleti Kutatócsoport; and 1.4% were from Csokonai Vitéz Mihály Tanitóképzó Fó´iskola, Kapsovár. About 10.4% had no institutional affiliation and might be considered continuing education students.

Hungarian students were most interested in sociology and aesthetics and legal issues, moderately interested in computer-related skills, and least interested in advertising and public relations planning and management. While natural given past history, the traditions of journalism education, newsroom socialization, and the training and backgrounds of journalism educators. journalism students must learn new skills to adapt to the emerging marketplace.

Respondents listed 24 different majors. The top ten reported majors were English (15.3% of respondents), journalism (13.9%), teaching (I8.3%), agriculture (6.9%), history (6.3%), Hungarian (5.6%), sociology (5.6%), international management (4.2%), and political science ( 2.1%). About 12.5% listed no major.

Students took journalism courses for many reasons. Among the first cited reasons, about 49% took courses to advance their careers, 35% to develop personally, 22% to keep current in their present job, 9% to change careers, and 2.4% to fill out their course schedule. Among the second cited reasons for taking journalism courses were: 30% for personal development, 27% to change careers, 25% to advance their careers, 24% to keep current in present job, and 14% to fill out course schedules.

Students wanted several things from the courses. Among first cited reasons, about 67% took courses for practical experience, 38% wanted to develop skills to get a job; 6% wanted course credit to graduate; and 3% wanted a good grade. Among second cited reasons, 41% wanted skills to get a job; 23.6% wanted practical experience; 18% wanted a good grade; and 13% wanted course credit to graduate.

The students were also asked about career plans. After completion of course work, about 46% expressed interest in newspaper journalism, 33% in television journalism, 28% in advertising. 28% in public relations, 27% in magazine journalism, and 18% in radio journalism.

To determine areas of future academic interest, student respondents were given a list of 26 different possibilities taken from broad range of possible courses. (Abridged from Rose and Miller,1994, Summer). In responding to the question "I am interested in learning more about...," student respondents were asked to rate their interest in each topic on a five-point scale (1 important; 5 unimportant).
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Table 1
Interest Areas of Hungarian Journalism Students
(Mean Scores)

Report writing 1.94
Ethics 2.04 Editing 2.13 Law 2.24
Sociology of communications 2.25
Media criticism 2.33
Communications planning 2.36
Advertising strategy 2.37
Audience research 2.45
Public relations strategy 2.46
Advertising planning 2.49
Evaluate media effectiveness 2.51
Computers 2.53
Speech writing 2.54
Desktop publishing 2.58
Evaluate advertising effectiveness 2.64
Public relations writing 2.66
Consumer behavior 2.67
Layout and design principles 2.75
History of communications 2.78
Copy writing 2.82
Issues management 2.94
Crisis management 2.94
Marketing programs 2.96
Promotions planning 2.99
Managing marketing department 3.23

Number of student survey respondents = 144.

The closer to 1, the more interest in an area.

Table 2
Hungarian Student Areas of Interest By Groups

Mean Professional
Age Group Experience

All 20.9 26.4 PJ NPJ
Management
Issues management 2.94 3.02 2.82 3.16 2.84
Planning promotions 2.99 3.04 2.93 3.36 2.88
Manage marketing dept. 3.23 3.23 3.23 3.37 3.13
Crisis management 2.94 2.92 2.96 3.35 2.77
Design marketing progs 2.96 3.03 2.91 3.07 2.91
Communications planning 2.36 2.36 2.37 2.51 2.30
Public relations writing 2.66 2.75 2.53 2.95 2.54
Speech writing 2.54 2.38 2.77 2.54 2.55
Strategy public relations 2.46 2.60 2.27 2.79 2.32

Sociology & Aesthetics
Communications ethics 2.04 1.99 2.10 2.16 1.98
Media criticism 2.33 2.30 2.38 2.26 2.37
Media law 2.24 2.24 2.23 2.12 2.19
Communication sociology 2.25 2.33 2.13 2.16 2.29
Communications history 2.78 2.68 2.92 2.65 2.83

Skills
Desktop publishing 2.58 2.55 2.63 1.98 2.84
Editing 2.13 2.21 2.02 1.77 2.29
Computers 2.53 2.46 2.62 2.05 2.73
Principles of layout/design 2.75 2.80 2.68 2.37 2.91
Report writing 1.94 1.96 1.92 1.63 2.08

Research & Planning
Consumer behavior 2.67 2.58 2.78 2.88 2.57
Effectiveness of ad types 2.64 2.85 2.35 3.12 2.44
Audience research 2.45 2.57 2.28 2.54 2.42
Evaluating media effect. 2.51 2.54 2.47 2.61 2.47
Advertising strategy 2.37 2.37 2.37 2.74 2.21
Advertising planning 2.49 2.64 2.27 2.95 2.29
Copy writing 2.82 2.98 2.59 3.42 2.56

The closer to 1, the more important a student survey respondent regarded an interest area. Bold face indicates significant differences between groups.

Column headings: All: all respondents (N=144). Mean age groups: respondents of mean age of 20.9 (N=78) and 26.4 (N=60), respectively. Professional experience: PJ, currently practicing journalist (N= 43); NPJ, Not currently practicing journalist (N= 101).
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Overall, Hungarian students seemed most interested in sociology and aesthetics and legal issues, moderately interested in computer-related skills, and least interested in advertising and public relations planning and management. (See Table 3.) When factor analysis was used, the resultant groups that emerged were labeled as: 1) management, 2) sociology and aesthetics, 3) skills, and 4) research and planning. Factor 1 represented such management functions as issues and crisis management and managing a marketing department. Factor 2 represented sociology, law, and aesthetics. Factor 3 represented newly emerging computer-related skills. And, Factor 4 represented research design, creative strategy, and evaluation of program effectiveness. As might have been expected given Hungarian educational tradition, sociology and aesthetics drew the most interest from all the respondents. These were followed in order by skills, research and planning and management. When respondents were divided into groups on the basis of gender, mean age, and present occupation groups (currently practicing journalism and not currently practicing journalism), patterns began to emerge. (See Tables 1 and 2.)

While differences existed between all groups, most significant differences appeared between currently practicing journalists and not currently practicing journalists. Females and males expressed about equal interest in studying sociology and aesthetics, followed by computer skills, research and planning, and management. Low and high mean age groups were more interested in studying sociology and aesthetics, followed by computer skills, research and planning, and management. Lastly, currently practicing journalists were most interested in upgrading computer-related skills, closely followed by sociology and aesthetics, research and planning, and lastly management. Rank order for groups with respect to All (the overall mean) was 1.00, except for currently practicing journalists and not currently practicing journalists. Rank for currently practicing journalists and not currently practicing journalists was .800 for both with respect to All.

Rank order between currently practicing journalists and not currently practicing journalists was .400. This indicated that currently practicing journalists and not currently practicing journalists had different areas of interest and thus different educational requirements.

While areas of student interest also varied according to school, students usually expressed a high interest in sociology and aesthetics and a low interest in management related skills. With respect to specific schools and groups of schools, students with no school and those from the American Journalism Center, Budapest, were interested first in sociology and aesthetics, followed by research and planning, skills, and management. Students at József Attila Tudományegyetem, Szeged; Kölcsey Ferenc Református Tanítóképzó Fó´iskola, Debrecen; and Magyar Újaágírók Országos Szövetsége were interested first in skills followed by sociology and aesthetics. Students at Kölcsey Ferenc Református Tanítóképzó Fó´iskola, Debrecen and Hungarian Department, Eötvös Loránd Tudomány-egyetem, Budapest and were interested first in research and planning followed by sociology and aesthetics.

Because many of the new skills Hungarian journalists will be asked to perform are computer related, students were also asked about their computer expertise. About 59% said they had experience with an IBM or clone, 4.6% with Apple, 3.4% with other computers, and 9.6% with both IBM and Apple.

While these figures suggested that about three-quarters of the respondents were familiar with computers, familiarity did not translate into expertise. About 63% of the respondents believed they needed special help in learning how to operate a computer, and few respondents knew how to operate software other than word processing programs. (See Table 3).

Chi-squares, significant at p.&Mac178; . 01, showed that computer knowledge was related to the ability to operate design software, and also indicated that those who work in journalism now are more likely to operate design software than those who do not. Chi-square also indicated that those who currently work in journalism were more likely to know how to operate computers and software than those who once worked in journalism, but did not now.

Conclusions

The fundamental findings of this study are that Hungarian journalism education and Hungarian journalism students need to make great strides to meet the needs of the emerging marketplace and to meet the demands of their new civic responsibility.

Hungarian journalism students from the sample were overwhelmingly female, older and likely to have worked or be currently working in journalism. Unlike their American counterparts, Hungarian journalism student were unlikely to get on-the-job experience in school because publications such as newspapers and yearbooks are not generally associated with journalism departments.
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Table 3
Hungarian Student Software Expertise
(Self Reports)

Word Processing*
Microsoft Word 57.7%
Word Perfect 39.6%
Others 12.5%

Desktop Publishing
QuarkXPress 17.4%
PageMaker 7.6%
Others 1.4%

Graphing Programs
Harvard Graphics 4.2%
DeltaGraph 2.1%
Others 5.5%

Photography Programs
Adobe PhotoShop 4.9%
Other 2.8%

Art and Drawing
MacDraw 2.8%
Aldus Freehand 1.4%
Claris 0.0%
Other 9.7%

Scanning Programs
OneScanner 2.1%
OmniPage Professional 0.7% Others 2.8%

* Total is more than 100% because respondents who operated word processing software generally operated more than one program. (Chi-square was p.&Mac178;. 05.).

25% of respondents could not operate any word processing software.

(All percentages calculated as Software User/All Respondents.)

While figures suggested that about three-quarters of the Hungarian respondents were familiar with computers, familiarity did not translate into expertise. About 63% believed they needed special help in learning how to operate a computer, and few respondents knew how to operate software other than word processing programs. These figures suggested that students were ill-prepared for the emerging marketplace.
Table 4
Rank Order of Student Interest
in Post-Education Work Areas

1. Newspaper Journalism
2. Television Journalism
3. Public Relations
4. Magazine Journalism
5. Radio Journalism
6. Advertising
7. Other
___________________________________________

Hungarian journalism programs attracted a variety of majors. These programs, in which about 13.9% were declared journalism majors, seemed to attract returning professionals seeking upgraded training or "experimenters" who were exploring what the "new" Hungarian journalism meant.

As might be expected from an older student body with industry experience, Hungarian journalism students, in answering questions about reasons for taking a specific course, indicated greater interest in practice and skills development, indicating a recognition of the need to learn skills necessary in an changing, competitive workplace.

Yet, surprisingly, when asked about interest in future courses, Hungarian journalism students expressed more interest in courses dealing with sociology and aesthetics than in management, research or planning skills. They also viewed public relations and advertising careers as lesser career paths than television and newspaper journalism. (See Table 4).

These findings must be interpreted in context. Because of educational philosophy and inhibited development of advertising and public relations due to tradition and practice, Hungarian journalism students naturally would be more drawn to sociology and aesthetics and their professors would be more comfortable teaching them. This being true, if such does not change in the near future, Hungarian journalism students may be locked out of job opportunities in the evolving media marketplace.

Besides educational perspective and experience, Hungarians lagged in computer expertise. About 13.2% of Hungarian journalism students had no experience on computers at all, and the computer knowledge gap increased when usage of specialized desktop publishing and design software were considered. The findings suggest that a special class of computer literate, early adopters exist in Hungary.

Clearly, Hungarian journalism students are not prepared for the marketplace. Increasing computer knowledge, and developing appropriate management, research and planning skills, depends upon access, philosophy, and funding. Continuing the evolution to a marketplace society means that practical courses must be created; management, research and planning courses must become an increased part of the educational mix; and a new philosophical rationale upon which reporting is based must reflect objectivity.

Bridging the gap between the old and new journalism may be difficult. In Hungary, faculty and staff are being laid off, critical maintenance has been delayed, and computers and other equipment are old and outdated (Walters, 1995b). And, in a country in which the average hourly wage reportedly was about $1 in 1994, software and hardware remain outside the budgets of many students and departments (Kommunikációs Konferencia, May 5-6, 1995).

Allocation of diminished resources will force a reappraisal of education missions and may inhibit the ability of students to use the newest of technology. If educational officials are unable to apply visionary leadership to strategic planning and development of curricula to meet student and marketplace needs, Hungarian students will be left behind. And, as university-based journalism education becomes irrelevant to the marketplace, business will fill the void, hiring motivated individuals and training them in-house. If that happens, university journalism will fail.


References

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T.N. Walters is assistant professor of journalism at Northeast Louisiana University. Ray Hiebert is professor of journalism in the College of Journalism, University of Maryland. He was director of the American Journalism Center, Budapest. Lynne M. Walters is associate professor of Journalism at Texas A&M University. She was Fulbright Scholar in residence).

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