CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS

THE previous chapters have been devoted to the light-
in of various parts of the scene that are more or less
common to all productions. This chapter deals with the
special effects that are often necessary. The layout up
to this point guarantees that the acting area will be ade-
quately lighted and that certain broad effects of time of
day and composition can be obtained. Like any layout
that approaches this degree of standardization it can
serve only as a foundation to which the special instru-
ments should be added. It attempts to include equip-
ment that is ordinarily necessary for any type of pro-
duction, and to limit the variables (which are always too
numerous) to such a degree that more attention can be
devoted to lighting than to the mechanics of handling
instruments. The special effects which must be used to
differentiate the lighting of one production from another
beyond the variety provided in the basic layout will now
be considered.
 Although some attempt is made to confine the light-
in of the acting space to certain areas it is occasionally
necessary to emphasize a particular position on the stage
by the use of a special acting area light. Entrances are
apt to be more important dramatically than the general
acting space so that it is often desirable to emphasize the 103

104 CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS

actor's face as he enters and leaves the stage. This em-
phasis must be accomplished with special instruments.
 A second group of special instruments is used to serve
as motivating sources: to give the effect of sunlight,
moonlight, lamplight, firelight, lightning, etc. In real-
istic settings there is no question concerning the con-
tribution of motivated lighting. In fact, some producers
believe that as far as possible all lighting on the stage
should be as definitely motivated as the actor's lines
and business.
 With the less realistic type of play the aim may be
expressly to avoid any sense of motivation, but there
is a grave question with regard to the ability of the
audience to accept any visual effect unless it is motivated
to some extent. Our eyes are used to interpret the re-
lation between ourselves and the things about us, so
that probably no matter how abstract the setting of a
play may be, the audience will supply a motivation for
what it sees. Motivation in lighting is more a matter of
degree than of sharp delineation but in any case it should
create a definite reaction in the audience rather than be
neglected because the style of the production is not
realistic.
 A third group of instruments which create special
patterns of light, called "effects", must give a precise
control over the form of light even to the extent of
giving photographic sharpness of detail. Although the
scenic suggestion possible with the motion picture in
realistic or totally abstract form, even in color, is avail-
CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS 105

able through this type of instrument, its use on the stage
is limited, for the present, because it is primarily out of
key with the living actor and generally apt to be too
distracting to be essentially a dramatic contribution to
the production.

EMPHASIS AND ACTING AREA SPECIALS

 Particular pieces of scenic detail, special positions
within the acting area, and important entrances can be
lighted separately to give them added emphasis. As a
rule each task of this type requires a separate instrument.
 Where some illumination already exists on the ob-
ject or scenery in question, the additional illumination
required to give the necessary emphasis varies with the
degree of emphasis desired. Generally this added inten-
sity should not be great because it often appears too
arbitrary. The eye can easily perceive a difference of
intensity between different areas if the difference is
greater than one-tenth of the existing illumination. If
one foot-candle exists, one-tenth may be added to give
emphasis. If ten foot-candles are incident on a surface
one foot-candle added to an object will make it seem to
stand out. Inasmuch as the special illumination must
be confined to a certain area it is wise to use a lens unit
to get the desired control. The added intensity that is
given by having the lamp at relatively sharp focus in-
dicates that the special instrument can be of lower watt-

106 CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS
age than the lens unit generally used at the same dis-
tance for acting area lighting.
 In accenting a part of the scenic detail such as a
tapestry or picture, color is important. It is best to select
a tint similar to the dominant color of the pigment, but
the special illumination must not differ too much from
the general color on the adjacent parts of the setting.
 The beam of light should be shaped to correspond
to the outlines of the object lighted or soft edged so
that it fades into the surrounding lighting. The beam
from a lens unit can be shaped by an opaque mat cut to
the desired shape and mounted in the color frame
(Figure 11). For precise patterns an objective system
such as is used in the effect machine must be used be-
cause an ordinary spotlight will give a "fuzzy" edge.
The instrument, usually mounted behind the teaser so
that the beam will not have to be directed through the
acting area where shadows of the actors would be cast
on the object, should have a position which directs the
beam most squarely at the object. Distortion due to a
diagonal throw must be allowed for in making the mat.
It is important to have this special instrument under
the control of a dimmer or to select the color medium
of the requisite density so that the intensity of illumina-
tion of a particular area can be balanced with that of the
surrounding areas.

 Special positions within the general acting areas, par-
ticularly those which fall between two Of the conven-
CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS 107

tional areas or in an inaccessible corner of the setting
must be lighted as essential parts of the acting area.
The illumination of those special areas where important
pieces of business may transpire during the course of
the scene is, in present professional practice, about the
only use to which acting area spotlights are put. The
borders and foots are expected to illuminate those areas
which are not specially spotted. Obviously such a prac-
tice requires many special instruments or a great deal
of refocusing between scenes to make the instruments
direct their beams on a different set of areas for each
scene. With the method suggested for lighting the six
conventional areas, or as many as seem necessary, the
number of special instruments can be cut down to the
minimum.
 The amount of illumination given by special acting
area spotlights should be consistent with the intensity
given to the other areas and can be figured from the
tables given on page 35. Where accent is to be given
within one of the conventional areas the suggestions in
the previous paragraph hold. The color should be con-
sistent with the other acting areas or selected to give
the special effect desired. The area to be lighted deter-
mines the shape of the beam and the position for mount-
in the instrument. Generally the beam should be soft
edged but where there is already considerable illumina-
tion the shape of the beam is not likely to show. Quite
often the special areas require illumination from both
sides and equally as often the area is so surrounded by

108 CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS

scenery that the ground plans and drawings should be
studied with great care to provide for placing special
instruments where they can be most effective.
 For special distributions and directions such as the
effect of light from a fireplace or from a trap in the
floor the placing of the instrument depends considerably
upon the position where the shadow of the actor will
fall. Where a broad spread of light from special poi-
tions is desired a floodlight is ordinarily more efficient
than a lens unit. Usually, however, a spotlight mounted
in the proper position behind the teaser or in a ceiling
beam will give the best results. If it is necessary to have
a color change within an area another instrument will
have to be used in addition to the one already covering
the area. By dimming one instrument and bringing up
the other the form of light is not changed but the
color is.
 In repertory theatres it is thought more efficient to
use two or three spotlights in place of each acting area
spot in the conventional system suggested in the second
chapter, to provide the color change from scene to scene.
This system saves labor, but color change can be accom-
plished equally well by the use of remotely controlled
boomerangs which will allow at least four different
color changes for each instrument and are under control
from the switchboard. When soft-edged follow spots,
controlled in direction from the switchboard, are de-
veloped, and the toning and blending lighting handled
so that the proper distribution is given over the acting
CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS 109

area, it may be possible to eliminate most of the com-
plication of the general acting area spotlighting. The
problem then will be the training of the operator to
follow each actor, perhaps from two sides, as he moves
about the stage. This may take a long time and may
never be realized but it is an interesting speculation.
Follow spots as we know them today belong essentially
to the musical or stylized types of production. An easy
method to use for following under some conditions is
to mount a mirror on a universal joint in front of the
spotlight, and to direct the beam by moving the mirror
and not the spotlight itself.

 Entrance lighting originated in the days when en-
trances could be made between the wings. The wing
strips illuminated the actor as he came on and left the
stage. Later when floodlights were developed it became
the practice to place a flood in each wing or entrance
and to some extent the effect that this practice gave is
necessary even today. Backing lights as we know them
should not be expected to Perform the function of en-
trance illumination. Conversely, however, the entrance
lights are often supposed to light the backings as well
as the actor as he enters or leaves the set.
 There is another type of entrance light which is essen-
tially a special acting area instrument. This instrument,
a lens unit, is generally equipped with a mat to shape
the beam to fit the door opening or entrance. It is used
primarily to accent the actor as he makes his entrance

110 CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS

to the acting space. Its color and intensity are generally
that of the other acting area lights and it is generally
mounted behind the teaser so that the throw of the
beam is as direct as possible. An instrument directed
through the entrance from off-stage may be of the same
type if no spill on the backing is wanted, but generally
the off-stage instrument is a floodlight mounted well
above the actor's head and some distance away from the
entrance to keep the actor's shadow from falling on the
backing or into the set itself. If this instrument is thor-
oughly diffused the shadow made when its beam is
intercepted will be soft edged, and the illumination can
serve as the general light filling the off-stage room.
 There are two devices for obtaining diffusion which
are better than a diffusing medium. One is to Project the
light through a large translucent screen, and the other
is to direct a high-powered spotlight from a high angle
beyond the off-stage edge of the backing to a large
white diffusing surface placed parallel to the backing
on the down-stage side of the opening.
 The color to use in entrance lighting instruments,
unless it serves as the motivating light of the sun or
some other source, can be complementary in color to the
general lighting on the stage. The intensity must natu-
rally be low so that the entrance does not appear dis-
tracting. As a general rule, if an actor approaches an
entrance in the rear wall of the setting from both sides
of the stage, there should be floodlights or spotlights
placed on each side. When the actor is making an exit
CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS 111

or entrance these special instruments as well as the
acting area lights of the playing space will light him.

MOTIVATING LIGHT
 All lighting should be dramatic, a component part
of the means of expression in a production. It should be
convincing and not distracting. But our sensibilities have
become so dulled by seeing the conventional that we
are prone to lose track of the real. The suggestions for
lighting made in the first chapters of this plan are pri-
marily practical; they constitute an arbitrary means of
creating the visual aspect of a scene; they are in a
measure unmotivated, undramatic. This section is de-
voted to the discussion of light sources which may be
called realistic, but the intention is not to define the
bounds of realism, but to give practical examples of a
larger field of expression.
 It is almost too much to expect that a slice of nature
set upon the stage would be dramatic even if it were
possible to reproduce it with photographic accuracy. And
it is only rarely possible, through careful direction and
design, to make the motivating source give all the illu-
mination that is necessary. In any case a scene is apt to
be more convincing if sunlight streaming in at the
window, or a table lamp set beside a chair, illuminate
it naturally, as far as possible, without giving a glare
to the eyes of the audience. Therefore, the technician
must resort to auxiliary sources, such as acting area and
emphasis lights to supplement the motivating sources.
The effect of the combination is motivated lighting.

112 CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS
Sunlight
 It is possible to justify the lighting of a daytime scene
by directing the bright warm rays of the sun into the
acting area or on some essential piece of scenery. Light
thus used can serve as part of the acting area lighting
and will tend to motivate the brighter illumination of
the whole acting area even if it falls on only a portion
of the stage or through a window in an interior. It
should be bright, the brightest light on the stage, some-
where between 10 and 100 foot-candles depending upon
the time of day and the general brightness over the rest
of the stage. It approximates the brightness of the sun-
light entering the window of a room as compared to
the brightness inside. Its color should be warm, but not
the particular greenish yellow shade resulting from the
wrong use of a straw medium. The uncolored light
from an incandescent lamp (particularly if the lamp is
dimmed slightly) will appear warm if the rest of the
stage is bathed in the cool tints of daylight. Amber of
varying grades will give the range of color needed to
indicate sunset. Whenever possible the direction of the
rays should be such that they tend to illuminate the
face of the actor on the side toward the audience. The
angle of the beam of light is obviously determined by
the time of day and the rays should be parallel. There
is only one instrument which could even approximate
this effect over the whole stage, and then only if it could
be mounted at a great distance from the stage. This is
CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS 113

a high-powered searchlight. It is possible, however, to
use smaller instruments closer to the stage if they are
limited to lighting a small area only. When a large area
must be lighted, several instruments properly spaced
and focused in the same general direction can be used
with relatively satisfactory results. Generally speaking,
a "sunspot" is used and the acting area lights directed
from that side are equipped with a similar color. The
conventional instrument for simulating sunlight is the
open floodlight, or Olivette (Figure 20A). It is very
poorly suited to this purpose. When placed just out-
side a window or entrance so that its rays spread in a
wide beam into the room, it does not cast the same
parallel rays or cause the same shadows as the sun, nor
does its intensity carry from one side of the stage to
the other.
 To simulate sunlight correctly, some type of con-
centrating instrument must be mounted as far from the
stage as possible and as high as is consistent with the
angle of the rays. This is often very difficult since de-
signers seldom consider the possible locations for "sun-
spots" with respect to the position and shape of the
windows they put in their settings. With poorly de-
signed sets, incorrect motivation for the lighting is not
always the electrician's fault. The types of instruments
best suited for the purpose of simulating sunlight are
the projector (Figure 22 and 23) and the high-powered
spotlight. Due to the fact that the reflector gathers more
rays than the lens of a plano-convex spotlight, the pro-


Figure 22:
PROJECTOR--SHALLOW REFLECTOR

 Section of an open-faced pro-
 jector. The rays that would
 normally come out the front of
 the hood are redirected by a
 spherical mirror. It is not ordi-
 narily as efficient as the type
 illustrated in 24. Heavy lines
 with arrows indicate direction
 of rays of light.


(1) Large parabolic reflector.
(2) The flood focal position.
(3) A concentrated high-powered filament, preferably mono-
    plane type.
(4) The sharp focus position, or focal center of the    
reflector.
(5) Bulb of the G-type lamp.
(6) Spherical reflector, mounted on the lamp carriage so     that
    it lies on the axis of the parabolic reflector and its    
center
    of curvature lies at the center of the filament.
(7) Reflector adjustment.
(8) Ventilation space.
(9) Color frame slides.
(10) Color frame slide closer to prevent light spill.
(11) Base of the tamp. 
(12) Socket.
(13) Focal slide. 
(14) Worm focal adjustment.
(15) Focal adjustment Knob.
(16) Asbestos insulated feeds.
(17) Pin connector. 
(18) Vent hole.

                  115

116 CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS

jector is from three to six times as efficient in terms of
intensity as the conventional spotlight. It is far less
flexible in control, however, and more clumsy than the
spotlight, so that the large step lens unit is probably
the best to use. The spread of the beam from the pro-
jector is limited, it cannot be shielded except by an
extremely long funnel, and the beam is very apt to be
mottled. This last characteristic can be somewhat coun-
teracted by the use of a color medium, and the mottling
often gives a very desirable variety that can be obtained
in the beam cast by a spotlight only by using a variegated
gelatin.
 Often the acting area spotlights from one side can
be used to give the effect of sunlight without using
special instruments. The changes in brightness can be
controlled at the switchboard by the dimmers. Some-
times it is wise to use more than one sunlight instru-
ment if a change in color and direction is required. A
color boomerang which allows the movement of in-
creasingly deep amber mediums over the face of the
instrument, and a stand with a windlass which permits
the lowering of the instrument and the changing of the
direction of the rays, can be used for the same purpose.

Moonlight

 About the only difference between sunlight and moon-
light on the stage is the intensity and color. The same
instruments may be used for both, and the same rules
govern their use. The intensity of moonlight in nature
CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS 117

is ordinarily far too weak to provide adequate visibility
lighting so that it is stage practice to "steal" consider-
ably on the side of brightness. Generally the same watt-
age as that used for sunlight must be used in the in-
struments simulating moonlight because of the increased
need of intensity and because the blue medium trans-
mits less than a third of the amount of light that is
passed by the amber. The actual color of moonlight is
an indescribable greenish-blue which is not complimen-
tary to the make-up. Most equipment companies sell a
special moonlight color which approximates the true
color, but a deep steel-blue (or light purple-blue) is
not far from the actual color and it is less hard on the
make-up than any other shade of blue. If this color is
used in the acting area spotlights from one side to serve
as the motivating light, the spotlights on the other side
of the stage can use light blue or a medium blue at
lower intensity than the moonlight.

Daylight
 Daylight is the general cool light coming in all direc-
tions from the sky. The toning and blending instruments
used alone can produce this effect approximately, but
acting area lights and other special instruments must
be used to give the proper visibility. Daylight is given
by such a broad general source that it is absolutely
shadowless, so that any directional light which tends
to produce shadows is not apt to be convincing as day-
light.

118 CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS

 The intensity of daylight is easy to simulate. In na-
ture it ranges between a fraction of a foot-candle to
several thousand, depending upon the position of the
sun and the presence of clouds, but as little as ten foot-
candles of general illumination on the stage conveys
the impression adequately.
 The color of daylight when approximated by incan-
descent sources can be obtained by the use of a color
medium of a light steel blue which verges on purple.
 The general shadowless distribution is difficult to ob-
tain. Any means that will eliminate or reduce shadows
or have them fall where they are not noticed will aid in
giving the effect. Daylight entering a window can be
simulated by the use of a large reflecting screen or
several small floods equipped with the steel and diffus-
in mediums. Striplights tend to give the most shadow-
less illumination, but daylight seems to have more
penetrating power than they provide. This is illus-
trated by the attempts to light windows artificially. The
illuminated white reflecting surface seen through the
window may be bright, even approaching a glare, but
the amount of light that gets into the room does not
compare with the daylight given by nature, and the sky
certainly seldom seems to glare.
 Changes in daylight coloring from dawn through
sunset are very subtle and probably can best be provided
by the progressive addition of circuits of light green-
blue and violet to the steel. The general light of an
extremely hot day may require white or even light
CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS 119

amber to emphasize the atmosphere. The light given
by a cloudy sky is almost colorless.

Fixture Lighting
 A room lighted by stand lamps and wall brackets is
seldom lighted brightly enough for visibility on the
stage. Moreover, in such a room, the light sources would
appear glaring to the audience sitting in the darkened
auditorium even though well shielded and of very low
wattage. The habit of avoiding bright lights where they
fall on the face and in the line of vision is growing. The
actor must be a brazen individual to seek the spotlight
against all sense of comfort, but he knows that unless he
is looking into a glaring light, his face is probably not
sufficiently visible to make his facial expression clear;
without it he is robbed of one of his chief tools of expres-
sion. The lighting designer soon learns to love the actor
who seeks the spotlight, because the novice is constantly
seeking the shadows, or at least seldom knows that he
can be seen best where he can see a light source--the
brighter the better.
 Fixtures on the stage are essentially decorative and
when lighted serve primarily as motivating sources.
They should never, in contrast to actual conditions, be
bright enough (on the side toward the audience) to
seem glaring in the stage picture. However, if they are
well shielded, they can house large enough lamps to
give considerable illumination, Then the effect of the

120 CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS

rest of the lighting, if carefully balanced, will seem jus-
tified and natural.
 A completely realistic use of fixture lighting on the
stage would not be in harmony with other methods
of lighting nor would it usually give adequate illumi-
nation. The audience expects something in addition to
photographic realism, so that no great effort ought to
be made to have all the lighting come from fixtures
unless they thereby contribute something dramatic. It
is easier to create an effect by using normal acting area
and tonal lighting and making the illumination seem to
come from the fixture. Perhaps as long os fixtures are
present it may be well to try to design them so that
they can give some of the illumination necessary.
 It is better to light the stage by the normal method
from hidden sources than to have "hot spots" in the line
of vision, or to load the stage with special instruments
that "spot" the areas ordinarily lighted by the fixture.
Common practice involves the use of many special in-
struments in the manner just cited. The effects resulting
from the practice are often crude, easily discernible and
therefore less effective than are those resulting from
lighting by acting area and tonal lights. Unless the fix-
ture can be made to give some illumination, it should be
decorative only and serve as a simulating, motivating
source.

Fixtures can be divided into two groups: those which
are only decorative and those which, in addition, give
illumination. The intensity of the first group is directly
CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS 121

dependent upon the reflecting power and illumination
of the scenery against which they are to be seen. If the
lamp itself is to be seen, the true size should be used,
but it should be dimmed so that it does not seem "hot"
against the background. It should be just bright enough
to serve as a suitable accent in the stage picture. Unless
there are a number of these lamps used together on the
stage so that the total wattage will equal that of the
dimmer controlling them, it is necessary to provide a.
special small dimmer or, more practically, to connect
sufficient wattage (off-stage) to the same dimmer so
that it will be properly loaded. This off-stage resistance
is called a "ghost" or "phantom" load.
 Another method of reducing the intensity of light
from visible lamps is to frost each one so that it trans-
mits no more light than is necessary for the particular
position in which it is used. This assumes that the sev-
eral lamps, which may be used about the set and con-
nected to the same dimmer, must be of different inten-
sities in conformity with their surroundings. Wherever
possible the lamp should be covered with a shade. From
10 to 25 watts will give the necessary glow on the
adjacent wall or surface.
 The shaded fixture can be made to give some illumi-
nation, either by dipping the lamp a dark color on the
side facing the audience or by making the shade more
dense on that side. In some cases the up-stage side of
the shade can be cut away to allow direct emanation
from the lamp to fall on the acting area and the scenery

122 CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS

behind the fixture. Obviously, in this case a lamp as
large as the fixture can accommodate should be used. If
the fixture is to be the chief source of illumination it
must be specially designed to carry the proper lamp, to
accommodate reflectors and even lenses to direct the
light, and still to appear in character with its surround-
ings. The color of the light should be similar to that
expected by the audience unless a special effect is desired.
 Central ceiling fixtures are generally hung from a
special line, independent of those supporting the ceiling
and so that they can be let down to the floor and un-
hooked when the scene is struck. Under no conditions
should the weight of the fixture be supported by the
feed cable. The cable is usually attached to the support-
in line and taken out of the way with it when the set
is struck. This means that there should be a connector at
the instrument. A large inverted cup called the canopy
at the top of the fixture where it meets the ceiling will
conceal the connectors and the hook of the supporting
line.
 Wall brackets should have the same wattage and con-
struction as ceiling fixtures, except that they are hung
from the scenery itself as a rule. Table lamps and stand
lamps generally have long enough stage cable leads to
reach to the nearest up-stage or off-stage part of the
scenery where the leads are passed through small holes
and connected to their feed cables.
 Where there is danger that the run of cable across
the floor will be kicked or tripped over, the cable should
CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS 123

be tied to the leg of the table or stand and covered with
a rug if possible. Only on rare occasions should the
actor be required to turn the switch which lights a fix-
ture. The control should be kept at the switchboard as
far as possible and a cue signalled from a vantage point.
In lighting a fixture the actor should not throw the
switch but should keep his hand on it until the light
comes on.

Lamplight
 It is always safer to use an electric source simulating
the flame than the actual oil and wick. A small candelabra
lamp fed by the regular current can be used if the lamp
is not carried on stage. If it must be brought into the
room, lighted, a battery can be built into the oil con-
tainer and a flashlight lamp used as the source. Under
some conditions a portable lamp can be brought in un-
lighted and connected after it is put in place. The lamp
can be dipped or covered with gelatin of a light amber
shade. The lamp chimney should be frosted or smoked
on the audience side so that the source does not glare or
reveal its static nature and false shape. If it is necessary
to light the lamp the actor should cover the business as
naturally as possible and the light should be brought up
from the switchboard on cue with the auxiliary lighting
which the lamp should seem to motivate. The battery
type of lamp can have a small dimmer mounted on the
fixture itself or, if the business is covered by the actor,
can be snapped on by means of a switch.

124 CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS
Candlelight
 Many of the suggestions made in the paragraph on
lamplight hold for candlelight, but with special permis-
sion from the Fire Inspector in most cities, real candles
can be used on stage, provided they are substantially
mounted and are not used close to the scenery. Some
cities require the use of a mica lamp chimney around
each candle. The effect is definitely artificial. The flame
shaped lamps made by the lamp companies do not
simulate candles successfully unless they are to be seen
at a great distance. There is a product which has a small
filament in a flame shaped parchment and a resistance
in the body of the candle that gives quite a natural shape
to an electric source. Small battery lamps covered with
a twisted piece of amber and frost gelatin will give a
good shape to the electric source.
 But nothing can simulate the flickering quality of the
real candle. When the real or artificial source is used
exposed and the rest of the stage is dark, even one
candle will seem to glare. If the candle must be ex-
posed, the rest of the stage should be bright enough to
offset this glare; when shielded, a small electric lamp
will give more illumination and be more satisfactory
than the actual candle except for the flicker which, after
all, is apt to be more distracting than contributing. As
mentioned before, the auxiliary lighting should be care-
fully balanced to keep from seeming artificial. A single
spotlight directed on the area supposed to be lighted by
the candle should be soft-edged and accompanied by
CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS 125

low general illumination of the proper distribution and
color.

Torchlight
 Nothing can be more ridiculous than the average
stage torch. It is often wiser to do without it than to try
to simulate torchlight. A long stick with a battery and
lamp on the end, perhaps covered with flame shaped
gelatin or tissue, is the usual stock device for simulating
the torch, and unless seen from some distance, it is un-
convincing indeed. A large torch of the brazier form,
particularly if it is not portable, can house a lamp large
enough to give some light and in a more elaborate form
can have a number of short silk pennants which are
blown upward by a small electric fan. The lamp should
be amber in color. The torchlight should be supported
by other lighting because it can give very little illumi-
nation itself. A soft-edged, warm light coming from the
general direction of the motivating light will produce
approximately the right effect. When the torch itself is
not seen, the effect of torchlight can be given by a
floodlight placed where the torch would be, and if the
flicker is important, silk banners agitated over the face
of the flood by a fan or an out-of-focus fire "effect" can
be used.

Firelight
 The dramatic nature of fire makes it an important
feature of expression in theatrical production. It is more

126 CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS

a type of "effect" than a motivating source, as a rule,
but is treated here inasmuch as it occasionally serves the
dual purpose. The producer may expect a script to call
for any form of fire from the ambitious demands of
Wagner's Valkyrie where flame and smoke engulf the
stage, to the modest glow of a coal-grate.
 Coal-grates give very little lighting effect in the room
unless flames or a very low glow are desired. Flames
can be simulated in the manner suggested for torches,
but the banners can be longer and there can be several
rows of them. The glowing coal can be amber dipped
glass pieces (broken lenses), partially blackened with
paint. If this is packed around a wire screen box, covered
with amber and red variegated gelatin, and in which two
rotors are mounted, the moving light effect associated
with heat and flames will be cast about the room and
particularly on the fireplace backing. The two rotors are
painted transparent cylinders, with light metal-vaned
tops, which are mounted on the top of a lamp so that
they turn freely in opposite directions, due to the up-
draught of the heated air from the lamp (perhaps 100
to 250 watts). Diagonal streaks of red and amber with
a certain amount of black will give the desired flicker.
The rotors should turn freely on glass bearings. The
speed can be controlled by the pitch of the vanes. The
effect in the room can be increased for visibility sake by
installing a baby spotlight or flood (250 to 400 watts)
out of sight at the side of the fire grate, and its effect
can be varied on dimmers or by means of a fan and silk
CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS 127

banners, but this last means is not particularly desirable
because of its distracting effect.
 Fire logs should be made hollow to house small amber
and red lamps. The flame, if desired, can be made as
suggested above. If the part that is to glow is left trans-
lucent when the logs are painted, the red glow will seem
to come from the fire itself. The ash heap can even
contain two rotors, if there is space. Smoke can be made
by chemical means. The effect of the fire's glowing and
changing can be accomplished by dimming separately
the various lamps used inside the logs.
 Open fires such as campfires can be made in the same
fashion as the fire logs just described. A simple method
is to use actual sticks and logs and to build them into
a pyramid over a small lamp covered with red or amber
gelatin. Chemical smoke does not tend to rise very
rapidly so that if the fire is a large one which involves
the use of smoke, steam should be piped under the stage
to this point. The great drawback to the use of steam
is the noise it makes if allowed to escape under high
pressure. Smoke pots that are used in fireworks displays
have sometimes been used on the stage, but the heavy
fumes that accompany the smoke are apt to float out
into the auditorium and annoy the audience.
  Conflagrations had better be kept off-stage and only
their effect shown. In the Valkyrie the flames have been
simulated by placing long steam pipes drilled with many
holes behind ground rows and throwing amber color
from striplights on the steam as it rises. To show the

128 CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS

effect of a fire close by, an out-of-focus fire "effect" placed
offstage can give the flicker and color desired. For dis-
tant fires a dull red glow from an off-stage floodlight is
sufficient to suggest what is happening.

"EFFECTS"

 Under this heading come the patterns of light that
do not, as a rule, serve to illuminate as much as to create
recognizable forms such as clouds, lightning, and rain.
There are two general types of instruments in this class;
the Linnebach lantern and the effect machine. With
these instruments many astounding effects of lighting,
that were the wonder of the theatre a generation ago
and are still used extensively for novelty purposes, can
be produced with relative ease. However, lighting that
pretends to be subtle and a contributing factor to the
dramatic action of the play must employ lighting
"effects" with great care and reserve, particularly mov-
in projections. The instruments that project "effects"
can contribute so much to please the eye that the temp-
tation to overuse must be carefully suppressed. Simple
as these machines are in themselves, there is almost no
end to the experimentation necessary to make them
effective dramatically. Distortion of the projected im-
age, "paintiness", distracting brightness, difficulty in
operation, and the vividness of projected patterns com-
pared to those that are painted, present problems that
can be solved for each attempt only by experience. No
effect can be satisfactory if it is not considered in the
CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS 129

design of a particular setting and often in the directing
of the play.

The Linnebach Lantern

 The Linnebach lantern (Figure 23) operates on the
principle of shadow projection. A small high-powered
light source, such as a concentrated filament, or, better
still an arc, sends its rays directly through a large painted
glass or gelatin slide and projects the pattern on a large
screen. The size of the slide, its relation to the light
source and the distance between the instrument and the
screen determine the size of the image. Anyone knows
that as he approaches a light source his shadow increases
in size and the edges become more blurred. If a flat
object is held upright parallel to the wall a large shadow
will be cast, and it will have the same proportions as
the object itself. If the object is tipped the shadow shows
a distorted form; not the true shape of the object. This
is one of the greatest problems which must be dealt with
in projecting patterns because it is not often that a direct
throw to the screen can be obtained. If the slide can be
placed parallel to the screen the distortion will be elimi-
nated. In case it cannot, by trial and error a specially
squared slide which allows for the distortion can be
made and the distortion can be corrected on the slide
itself. The slide is mounted at the front of a large
tapered black funnel with the light source at the small
end, as far from the slide as possible, so that the image
will be sharp. The size of the front of the funnel de-

    CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS 131

termines the size of the image at each distance from
the screen. The spread of the funnel should be from
60 to 90 degrees
 This instrument can be used to project a bold colored
pattern over a large surface at close range. The pattern
must be bold because the size of a light source will
always blur the edges somewhat, and it should be used
close to the screen because its intensity when spread over
a large area will always be low. Color when projected
in this manner will appear very brilliant or painty un-
less it is carefully handled because of the contrast with
the dark areas that accompany it. It goes without saying
that there should be very little other light on the screen
if the projection is to count.


Figure 23: LINNEBACH LANTERN
 
A. Linnebach lantern or projector, showing two slides for pro-
 ducing the same image.
 0 and 0'. Plate glass on which the scene is painted. 0' slanted,
 0 parallel to the screen. When the slide is parallel to the
 screen, the image is not distorted. The fine lines indicate the
 plotted squares which serve as a guide in the construction of
 the slide. O' shows the construction of the slide when it is
used
 at an angle to the screen.
 H. The hood which is painted dead black inside.
 R. Reflector.
 L. Light source, which is a high-powered concentrated filament
 lamp or an arc source (in the latter case, the reflector is not
 used).
 S. Screen. Translucent if the projection is from behind, white
 if from the front.

132 CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS

 The position of the instrument is usually behind a
translucent screen because of the lack of space in front.
If this screen is semi-transparent, the instrument should
be placed on the floor. A masking screen put between it
and the sightlines of the audience will eliminate the pos-
sibility of seeing the light source through it. When the
instrument is placed on the floor the drop of intensity
due to the increased distance to the top of the screen
will be very marked. If the instrument can be mounted
in front of the screen much greater brilliance can be
obtained. When an are is used there is apt to be a dis-
tracting flicker, but a much sharper and brighter image
than is possible with an incandescent light source will
result. However, with the incandescent lamp, by using
two instruments placed side by side, it is possible to
fade from one pattern to the next. If the slides are
painted to represent a scene that might be painted on a
backdrop, the scene can be made to change before the
eyes of the audience by dimming one unit and bringing
up the other. The effect will never be as clear cut as
a painted scene, but it will be much more vivid--often
too bright.

The Effect Machine

 The Effect Machine (Figure 24) is similar in its prin-
ciple of operation to the old magic lantern or the mod-
ern lantern slide projector. An extra condensing lens
called a "dutchman", a slide, and an objective lens are


Figure 24: THE EFFECT MACHINE

I shows normal direct projection similar to the lantern slide or
stereopticon. I' shows the distortion due to angular projection.
The space between the cross-hatching indicates the relative in-
tensity of the rays of the various parts of the image, and in the
case of I', they are supposed to indicate the blurring of the
edges
of the image at the extremes, assuming that the center is in
focus.
H. Hood.
R. Spherical reflector.
L. Concentrated light source. An arc if the throw is long or a
bright image is desired.
C. Condensing lens.
D. Extra-condensing lens or dutchman.
E. The effect drum.
M. Clock-work drive or electric motor.
O. The object painted on the effect drum.
O.S. The objective system, consisting of two small lenses.
S and S'. The screen.
I and I'. The image.

133

134 CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS

added to the front of a standard plano-convex lens spot-
light to make the instrument called an effect machine.
The effect machine is used primarily to project precise
images on a large screen which forms part of the setting.
It differs in effect from the Linnebach lantern in that
its image is sharper, less intense, and smaller. It requires
a longer throw and the slide must be made with photo-
graphic precision because every detail is magnified many
times.
 The instrument is less bulky and can be equipped with
moving slides more easily than the shadow projector.
It is subject to the same problem of distortion to an even
greater degree and it requires almost a direct throw if
the image is to be in focus over all its area. Another
specific feature that complicates the use of the effect
machine is that there is a direct relation between the
size of the slide, the size of the image, and the focal
length of the objective lens. The intensity of the effect
machine is so low that the largest size of the slide which
any given machine will accommodate must ordinarily
be used; seldom larger than a four inch circle or a rec-
tangle contained within this circle. The relationship of
the variables can be stated in the following formulas:

   


              and (2)    1   1  1
(1)   *P=q               - + - =-
       - -               P   q  f
       p Q 
* Example: It is desired to project a 10' image at 20' from a
3" slide.

    p  20'                    1   1    1  
    - =--   p= 6, so that (2) - +--- = -  f = 5.75"
(1) 3  10',                   6  240   f,


5" is the next shortest and the nearest practical "f."
CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS 135

where p is the distance from the slide to the optical cen-
ter of the objective lens system, q is the distance from
the instrument to the screen; f is the focal length of
the objective lens system; P is the size or diameter of
the slide and Q is the size or diameter of the image.
Equipment companies are in the habit of rating their
short focal length objectives according to the focal length
of each of the two lenses in the objective so that in effect
the focal length is about one-half its rated figure.
 It is possible to fabricate special focal length objec-
tives by using two different focal length lenses, or to
give a certain range of focal length to one combination
by varying the distance between the lenses in the objec-
tive. The resultant focal length for each case can be de-
termined by the following formula:

           f1xf2
(3)*   f= -------
           f1+fi-d
where f is the focal length of the combination, the
lenses a certain distance apart d, and f, is the focal
length of the first lens and f, that of the second.
 The formulas are included here only to show the
variables involved and their relation to each other.
Equipment firms generally list the range of image size

 *Example: A 5" focal length objective using 8" and 10"
lenses to make the combination. How far apart should they be~
       8x 10
   5 = ------     ,   d=2
       8 + 10 - d


If d is fixed due to the size of the holder then it is a matter
of cut and
try. And an 8 and a 12 at 2" apart = 8 X 12
                                    --------  =  5.33"
                                   8 + 12 - 2

136 CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS
given by each focal length objective at different distances
assuming the object to be a 4 1/2" circle or a standard
3 1/4 x 4" slide. If the image is too large either a longer
focal length lens must be used or the slide must be made
smaller by means of a framing cutoff. The range of
focus for each set of conditions is relatively limited so
that a diagonal throw to the screen will not only dis-
tort the image but will tend to give a blurred effect on
the parts of the screen nearest and farthest from the
instrument if the center is "in focus". The distortion
can be allowed for in making the slide, but there is prac-
tically no method of bringing all parts of the image in
sharp focus when the angle of throw is sharp.
 While the effect machine is most often used to pro-
duce sharp images, occasionally a soft effect is more in
keeping than a sharp one. This can be accomplished by
moving the objective lens to "out of focus" position.
Another factor that makes the formulas important is the
limitation of positions for both the screen and the in-
strument. The design of the setting almost always de-
termines the size of the image and thereby indirectly
establishes or limits closely the positions of the instru-
ment and the screen. With the positions and therefore
the distance between instrument and screen established,
and the desirability of using as large a slide as possible
for the sake of intensity, the only variable that remains
to be determined is the focal length of the objective.
 The lens of a spotlight intercepts so small a portion
of the light created at the source that the greatest effi-
CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS 137

ciency of this instrument is seldom over ten per cent. If
the dutchman and the lenses in the objective each elimi-
nate ten per cent of this small amount of light, in addi-
tion to that lost in transmission through the slide, it will
be clear that an effect machine must either have a large
light source or the image will be of low brightness. For
a moderately dim stage, an average size of image, and
a good reflecting screen, a 2000 watt lamp will give a
fair brightness up to a 20' throw. Beyond that distance
a 5000 watt spotlight or an arc must be used. The colors
used in making the slide should be very transparent. It
is difficult to color a projection slide by hand because
every detail is enlarged many times in the image. A very
carefully taken, natural color photograph of a large
sketch would come close to being the ideal projection
slide. The same limitations apply to the forms and details
of the slide. There is a German firm which makes a large
model of a scene and then photographs it from the same
relative position that the effect machine will have on the
stage. In this way slides which register distortion and
color with photographic accuracy can be made.
 The effect machine provides a simple method of cov-
ering large surfaces with a precise pattern. The number
of effects that can be made is of course unlimited, par-
ticularly when several effect machines are used simul-
taneously. No attempt is made here to describe in detail
how most effects are made because a little ingenuity
will answer this question provided that the general prin-

138 CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS

ciple is understood. Though most projections have a
limited effectiveness they are amusing to deal with. In
general it is wise to rent the more complicated slides, or
"effects", as they are called. They are likely to be ex-
pensive, but they are more carefully prepared than the
home-made product. This advice applies particularly to
the so-called "moving effect" which usually consists of
a large round metal drum with one or more Painted
mica discs. The disc is rotated by a clock-works or a small
electric motor which can be controlled from the switch-
board. The German cloud machine consists of several
individual effect machines with photographs of clouds
which are rotated about one central high-powered source.
Moving effects except rain, snow, fire, water ripple, and
perhaps moving clouds should be willingly dedicated to
the revue and musical comedy stage where novelty is
a virtue. It need hardly be mentioned that the stationary
slide, like the lantern slide, is placed in the machine up-
side down and that moving effects will give the image
a movement in the opposite direction from that in which
the disc is turning.
 The rain effect is convincing when projected on a
front gauze or a large backdrop and the rest of the stage
kept in relative darkness. The disc is painted dead black
and minute needle scratches, made in irregular parallel
lengths, show as a downpour of rain.
 Stars can be projected over a small area by the use
of a long focal length lens. A thin opaque card pricked
by very fine points in a slight variety of size and spacing
CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS 139

will give this effect, but the area must be very small;
otherwise the stars will look as large as snowballs. A
blue color medium should be used.
 With a fine pointed stylus a bolt of lightning can be
scratched out, preferably copied from a picture, on a
lamp-blacked plate of glass. If a slotted shutter is
mounted in the slide carrier with the slide, the effect
of a streak of lightning can be given by passing the slot
quickly from the bottom to the top of the slide. The
shutter must be at the slide position because no other
place is in focus and the cutoff can only be sharp at that
point.
 Snow effects are similar to rain except that the
scratches are shorter and farther apart. Also the drum
is rotated at a slower speed.
 Clouds, unless they are photographed or thrown out
of focus, are apt to appear crude. Photographs taken
and developed to give sharp contrast are best for this
purpose. The sky part of the picture should be blocked
out. Moving cloud discs are generally painted by hand
and are only really effective as storm clouds. A good
approximation of lightning flashing between clouds can
be given if a storm cloud effect is flashed on the back-
ground from time to time.
 Fire effects can be projected fairly successfully over
a small area by revolving two or three painted discs at
different speeds in the same drum. Each slide should
be painted so that the movement within the movement
makes the painted forms seem to turn and rise.

140 CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS

 The water ripple consists of several moving parts
made of ripple-glass. A piece of flat glass painted with
horizontal lines of blue and green alternated with clear
spaces between can be moved up and down slowly to
produce the ripple movement. If an irregular mat
shaped like the path of light from the moon on the
water is placed in the slide, the soft ripple of the path
of moonbeams on water can be simulated. A color me-
dium of blue-green may be necessary to give the proper
color.
 A hasty survey of the lists in various catalogues will
reveal a host of other effects, but those here listed are
most generally useful on the legitimate stage and are
designed to give realistic patterns. The effect machine
will be of relatively little use, however, until the prin-
ciple of projection is extended into the more abstract
type of design. It is far more suitable in the latter field
because its effect is always somewhat distorted and con-
ventionalized. A vast store of visual expression awaits
the designer who can incorporate the compelling visual
reaction to changing light patterns over the great ex-
panse of the stage, into a co-ordinated dramatic expres-
sion as carefully executed as are the more limited means
of expression he is using today.

OTHER USES OF LIGHT

 There are certain other uses of light that cannot
strictly be called "effects' (definite patterns of light),

    CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS 141
but that have an important place in any discussion of
lighting methods.
 Luminescence is the special effect given by some
chemicals due to their ability to glow when they are
apparently not illuminated by any visible source. Lumi-
nescent substances give off light when all other objects
about the stage are invisible. For ghostly and novel
effects this phenomenon is useful. There are two types
of chemical pigments that have this property; one is
phosphorescent and glows without any stimulus after it
is once charged; the other is fluorescent and requires a
constant stimulus in the form of invisible ultra violet
(U. V.) light. The glow of both types of luminous pig-
ments is so weak when other lights are on, that when
they are used the stage should be as dark as possible.
For the second type, a high-powered incandescent source
must be used even if the throw is short (not over 12').
 An are gives richer ultra violet light than the incan-
descent lamp, as well as greater intensity. High-powered
light sources are necessary because the medium must
filter out the visible light and pass only the U. V. The
light absorbed turns into heat and the heat of the light
source also affects the medium, so that it is well to im-
merse the U. V. medium in a water jacket. Glass tends
to absorb U. V. rays so that a special quartz lens will
increase the U. V. intensity. Luminescent chemicals can
be had in several shades, which often glow with quite
a different color from that which they appear to have
under natural or visible light, in the form of paint, dye,

142 CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS

and make-up. They are apt to be expensive, but a little
goes a long way.
 Beams of light play an important part in recent artistic
photography and, more often than not, it is a difficult
problem to eliminate them from the stage picture if
the background of the setting is dark. Unfortunately,
however, it is difficult to Produce strong beams of light
when they are wanted as part of the design, without re-
sorting to very high-powered instruments of the search-
light type. The beam is seen only because of reflection
from particles in the air so that either a great deal of
dust or moisture must be present or some reflecting me-
dium such as smoke or gauze must pick it up.
 Gauze (often called scrim) has been mentioned per-
viously, as a valuable medium for giving a hazy effect.
It can be purchased in 30' widths in several shades of
blue, white, black or gray and in several types of mesh.
It has no seams and it should completely cover the
opening so that its edge is not seen. Generally, it should
be stretched tightly, but draped gauze gives a soft
rhythm of transparent folds, if they are desired.
 When stretched tightly, a gauze may be lighted by
strips, placed on the floor and suspended above. The
strips should cast a sheet of light over the surface, prefer-
ably from the front, so that the illumination is even, or
definitely graded as desired. A gauze lighted in this way
gives a hazy appearance to any object lighted behind it.
If the light is taken off the gauze, it practically disap-
pears and objects are seen through it as if it were not
CREATING SPECIAL EFFECTS 143

there. It is impossible to Project through a gauze to an
object because the beam of light will make a distracting
pattern where it strikes the surface of the gauze. By
using several layers of gauze and appliqued forms of
trees or other objects it is possible to create a sense of
great depth in a very shallow space. It is well to note,
however, that more than one thickness of gauze gives
a definite water mark effect, and an appearance of mo-
tion, to anyone in the audience who moves his head.
 A translucent curtain can replace the backdrop when
a Linnebach lantern or effect machine is used from be-
hind. It is difficult to obtain cloth in widths greater than
9' in this country, so that there will have to be several
seams showing if the curtain is at all large. To make or-
dinary muslin or canvas translucent, it can be treated
with shellac and glycerin or simply wet down if it is
to be used only for a short time. The position of any
light source placed behind the curtain must be con-
cealed. A vivid sky and cloud effect can be obtained by
painting opaque clouds on the curtain, particularly over
the seams, and lighting the curtain from both the front
and rear, perhaps in the colors of sunset. The clouds
can be made to take on the color of the light from the
front and the translucent area will show the stronger
colors directed on the curtain from the rear.