INTRODUCTION

STAGE LIGHTING excites the interest of almost every theatre goer
because of its basic dramatic character. It gives visibility
where and when it is wanted. It simulates the wonders of natural
light; the glory of a colorful sunset, the coziness of the
campfire. It expands the horizon of the artist to bring life to
color even beyond the vividness of the stained glass window and
it vitalizes a plastic picture with lights and darks, deep
shadows and glaring highlights if desired, as no other visual
medium of design can provide. And finally in its brightness and
darkness, its color and pattern, it creates an atmosphere that is
inherently dramatic; maybe not always what we expect but a
challenge to conquer and to control the medium "light" which is a
sense provides a new horizon
for artistic expression.
Stage lighting can also lead the way in other uses of light. With
a free choice such as the stage gives us, the limitations of cost
and practicality are nonexistent to a large degree and
flexibility and adjustment are provided to allow the imagination
of the artist free reign. It is to this new artistic endeavor
that this book is dedicated. And it is within the discipline of
the theatre in its best sense that dramatic lighting will
flourish.
The design, or more specifically, the planning and
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                    INTRODUCTION                       10
execution of the lighting for a production is often surrounded by
a veil of mystery which is due, undoubtedly, to lack of knowledge
of both the limits and the potentialities of the problem. This
mystery arises first from the fundamental lack of philosophy of
precedent in the use of light as a design medium, second, from
the primitive equipment employed, and third, from the absence of
a simple, well defined plan which may be applied to the solution
of lighting problems. Here is a plan by which most productions
can be lighted.
 The chief reason for developing such a plan is to give the young
designer or technician the confidence with which to face the real
problems of lighting. The art of lighting is not measured by
ingenuity, although the complicated technical nature of the
subject often leads people to applaud an exhibition of technical
mastery, which in terms of the other visual arts might be
considered merely a mechanical trick.
 This plan prepares the palette, as it were, of the lighting
designer, and suggests a practical method of using the tools that
are available, but it does not pretend to guarantee the final
results of balance and composition in dramatic pictures. The
final result depends upon the eye and taste of the designer.
Moreover the method does not solve all the problems of lighting;
it is in fact simply an effort to clear the ground for actual
expression and experimentation. Following it saves a great deal
of time, energy and expense; and it has stood the practical test 

               INTRODUCTION                            II
of varied types of production practice.
From the practical point of view, a definite plan has many
advantages:
 (1) It can provide a standard layout for figuring the cost of a
new installation of lighting equipment and it can also be the
basis for future elaboration.
 (2) In this respect it may be an aid to an architect or building
committee, who are generally unacquainted with the amount and
kind of lighting equipment necessary for the theatre. Out of a
desire to economize on a building budget, items not recognized as
a necessary minimum are the first to be curtailed with the result
that the lighting layout is generally restricted to footlights
and borders with perhaps one or two dimmers. As a matter of fact,
such equipment can at best provide only "worklight" illumination,
and there are many stock lighting fixtures which cost half the
price and give even better results. Such a limited layout is
actually a waste of money and it permits little more than lecture
or concert platform illumination.
 (3) The plan outlines in advance the essential features of good
switchboard design, and indicates by the number and wattage of
separately regulated units, the number of circuits and controls
recommended for the switchboard. This feature is important since
the ability to use light dramatically is limited enough, even
with the best modern equipment, without sacrificing flexibility
of control. Two or three dimmers with noisy snap switches

12                   INTRODUCTION
are as primitive as a one-cylinder motor in an automobile.
 (4)Finally, the plan encourages the technician, designer and
producer to use light in all its qualities within the practical
limits established by the instruments.
 A great hope of the modern theatre lies in the development of
amateur production. Lighting, as an essential part of dramatic
expression today, should be encouraged by an understanding of its
use and by the provision of a layout which, while not as
elaborate as that used in professional productions, is
fundamentally modern and sound and at least adequate to permit
good lighting. It is a common error to suppose that the
enthusiasm and energy of the amateur can overcome technical
limitations which are never found in the professional theatre. On
the contrary handicaps which are too great usually absorb the
spirit to such an extent that the determination to achieve a
planned result is killed at the start.
 There must be variety in application. No two stages are ever
quite the same and productions differ sufficiently to demand a
lighting layout in each case. It will be found that considerable
flexibility is provided by using special instruments to cover
particular areas or objects, by reducing or increasing the number
of standard acting areas, and by varying the intensity, color and
distribution obtainable with the standard layout within the
separately

                    INTRODUCTION                  13

lighted areas. Experience has demonstrated that this plan
includes the least equipment that has any pretense to
flexibility. Further elaboration in the number of instruments and
special equipment often simplifies the setting up and operation
during the performance, but does not materially increase the
flexibility.
The pictorial aspect of the stage depends upon the form and color
of the setting, the arrangement of the properties, and the
grouping and costumes of the actors. These are basic elements
that present definite conditions to be blended together, by the
distribution of light, into an appropriate dramatic picture or
series of pictures. To achieve this there must, first, be light
for visibility. There was a time when this was all that could be
expected; backdrops bore large vistas and monumental architecture
which waved majestically in every back stage draught. Everything
on the stage appeared flat and of equal importance. The invention
of the electric lamp has provided high-powered individual sources
that can be controlled from a centralized point, the switchboard.
Controlled light is more than a medium to promote or limit
visibility. It affects the appearance of all the elements of the
stage and by this power becomes a determining element in the
composition of a stage picture. 
Poor, careless, inadequate and inartistic lighting, of

14                   INTRODUCTION
which there is still a great deal, cannot all be blamed on
inexpert handling of lighting equipment. The average theatre is
designed with little consideration for the lighting of the stage.
Moreover, the standard specifications of many equipment companies
are misleading in that they naturally tend to encourage the
installation of a type of equipment which is usually antiquated
and easy to make, satisfactory for the demands of musicals and
concert platforms, but not primarily suited to the needs of the
legitimate stage. The layout here suggests the standard minimum
quantity of each type of instrument for the uses of the
legitimate theatre.
 Since the primary function of lighting is to give controlled
visibility this influences all its other functions. Perhaps some
day more efficient and more powerful instruments will enable us
to approach the distribution and visibility given by daylight and
the sun. It may also be possible to reduce the number of
instruments to advantage. But it must be borne in mind that it is
not a factual presentation that is desirable on the stage, it is
the representation of some effect that contains the essence of
reality. If it were possible to place an actual scene on the
stage, sunlight and all, it would probably not be any more
dramatic than a photograph. On the stage the visibility of the
actor is an arbitrary fundamental. If, at the same time, he can
be surrounded by a special atmosphere that is convincingly
dramatic, it makes no difference whether the light comes from one
source or 

                    INTRODUCTION             15

several, so long as the effect is not distracting.
 Any arbitrary method will, of course, have its objections as
well as its advantages. A valid objection to the fixed layout
presented here is its inflexible nature; another is the necessity
of using a particular instrument in the same place for all
situations. But, while the plan should not be interpreted so
narrowly as to exclude the selection of a special instrument to
perform a specific duty, there must always be a compromise
between the selection of a particular group of instruments,
colors and accessories in definite positions (a set-up) for each
scene, and a simple layout for all the scenes of the whole
performance. Although the set-up suggested here is more or less
the same for all productions, it is quite possible that under
special conditions only special instruments carefully chosen to
perform specific duties may be used to light a scene.
 The instruments incorporated in the normal layout should
generally be of the portable type so that they may be mounted in
a number of different positions to conform to the special
conditions established by any production. They should be mounted
so that they are accessible for renewing lamps when they burn out
or even for changing direction and colors between scenes if
desired. And there should be a sufficient number of current
outlets reaching these positions to allow for the individual
control of each instrument, and color circuit. A discussion of
lighting instruments and the methods

16                  INTRODUCTION
of their use would be incomplete without some mention of the
objects and surfaces that lighting makes visible to the audience.
Scenery, costumes and even makeup can be called secondary
lighting instruments because light is really not visible until it
strikes some surface so that it can be reflected to the eye. But
such a discussion comes primarily under the heading of scenic
design and its relation to light. This book tries only to
indicate how far scenery is the determining factor in achieving a
result and how its design influences the use of light and
equipment.
 A layout such as this is no more foolproof than the average
automobile but with a little experience and care, anyone can use
the equipment effectively just as readily as he can learn to
drive. Too often in theatres the untrained and careless are
thrust into positions that demand skill and knowledge, and it is
hardly fair to limit the technical possibilities of production by
such methods. The ingenious and artistic person may achieve good
results with even less equipment than is indicated here. Lighting
a production is, however, not an individual expression, but
rather a co-ordinate part of the whole, and there is little
chance that the method of expression of the playwright, actor,
producer and designer will conform to any greater simplification
than this.