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WEEK THREE
• JAPAN
• Kabuki
• Bunraku
• Noh Drama
• INDONESIA
• Factography
• Historical Overview
• Gamelan
• Ensemble Structure
• Instruments
• Modes and Tuning Systems
• Types of Gamelan
• Kecak
• Wayang kulit
• Popular Music:
• Kroncong
• Islamic Popular Music:
• Dangdut
• Post-New Order Music
• WEST AFRICA
• Traditional Music: Ghana and Nigeria
• Jùjú: Nigerian Popular Music
• Yoruba nationalism
• Waterman's study of jùjú
• Historical background
• Colonial influences
• High-Life: 1920s
• Palmwine music: 1930
• Post WWII
• 1960s-1980s
• The jùjú stars

• Hogaku --  Japanese traditional music
• Gagaku, elegant and refined court, i.e. imperial, music of Japan, with ancient Chinese, Korean and Indian influences

 
• 553-794: Nara Period
• The first major historical period of Japan
• named after the city of Nara, constructed in 708, becoming the seat of the government in 710
• during this period Japan struggles to establish a government based on the Chinese model
• The Nara culture and religion (Budhism) are based on those of China
• Gagaku was first established during this period
• The age of the court nobles: a new class of the court nobles was established
• This class will give the main character to Japanese culture for the next several centuries, i.e. until 1185, when it was replaced by a new military class of wariors, that of the samurai
• 794-1185: Heian Period
• Modification and assimilation of Chinese influences
• The new capital and cultural center is Kyoto
• Kyoto will remain the capital and the seat of government until the Meiji Restauration in 1868
• Gagaku music is the most popular court music of this period
• The Tale of Genji, the famous novel of the Heian period describing musical activities of the noblemen
• 1333-1615: Muromachi Period
• Medieval Japan
• Samurai class, i.e. the class of highly educated and refined warriors
• 1615-1868: Tokugawa or Edo Period:
• Tokugawa is the name of a clan that ruled the city of Edo, i.e. the present-day Tokyo
• The rise of commerce and trade
• The rise of population and the emergence of new cities as commerical centers
• The culture of the new emerging social class of Japan -- burgeoisie
• Popular urban genres
• Kabuki - dance theater
• Bunraku - puppet theater
• Big commerical and trade centers:
• Osaka 
• Edo (the old name for Tokyo, the capital of modern Japan)
• 1868: Meiji Reformation
• Rapid opening of Japan to the West
• Japan becomes the leading power in the Pacific
• Military build-up of Japan
• Young Japanese pursue their studies in Europe, especially in Germany

1. Kabuki: Japanese Dance Theater

• The first kabuki performance took place in 1596, in Kyoto
• This performance was done by women
• However, soone after this date female performances of kabuki were banned
• 1652: following this date, until the present, all kabuki performances have been performed by men only
• New form of entertainment

Video:
• ?

2. Bunraku: Japanese Dance Theater

• Realistic puppets
• Not only that the puppets' limbs are moveable, but also their lips and eye-brows
• Three puppeteers, dressed in black and with heads usually covered with a black hood
• The puppeteers give the life, i.e. soul, to the puppets they manipulate
• Puppeteers do not talk
• Musical Accompaniment and Narrative/Telling the Story:
• Gyoruri Style of Narration: The Narrator tells the story, sings and chants/talks in heightened, i.e. emphatic, speech
• Shamisen Accompaniment: the Bunraku narration is accompanied by the shamisen, a long-necked fretless lute with three-strings, plucked with an oversized plectrum.  The shamisen's body is covered with cat or dog-skin
• The Narrator and Shamisen Player sit on a special platform separated from the main stage and located to the right
Video:
• ?

3.  Noh Drama

• A theatrical genre which heavily draws from religious Buddhist themes, especially those of Zen Buddhism
• Developed in medieval Japan, during the Muromachi Period (1333-1615), that preceded the Edo Period
• The Noh is an art of the ruling samurai class
• This was a feudal type of the warrior class, highly educated in military and other arts, such as music and poetry
• In its artistic, social, and cultural appeal, the Noh Drama is in direct contrast with the burgeois genres of Bunraku and Kabuki
Video:
• ?

Factography

• Indonesia is a republic, based on Western democracy
• Archipelago of thousands of Island:
• The biggest islands are: Sumatra and Java
• Other important islands
• Bali, Timor
• Irian Jaya, the western half of the Papua New Guinea
• Southern part of Kalimantan (earlier known as Borneo)
• Sulawesi (earlier known as Celebes)
• More than 185 million inhabitants
• Capital: Jakarta, Java
• Main religion: Sunni Islam, followed by the 95% of population
• Other Religions:
• Hinduism, especially in Bali
• Animism (belief that inanimate objects, such as rocks, as well as natural phenomena, are alive and have souls)
• Christianity, in Timor
• Official Language: Bahasa Indonesia (recently created artificial language, the lingua franca of Indonesia)
• According to the Sixth Edition of National Geographic Atlas of the World (1990), Indonesia is described as:
• More than 13,670 islands are home to 300 ethnic groups who speak some 365 local dialects
• The world's fifth most populous nation
• Indonesia is the largest Islamic country, with 175 million Muslims
• Indonesia's burdensome population could double in 30 years

 

Historical Overview

• The advent of Islam to Indonesian Islands
• The first Arab traders reach Sumatra as early as the 12^th century, and later Java
• These Arab traders came to Indonesian islands from West Indian ports
• In the beginning, Islam as religion and culture, i.e. a way of life, was accepted only by a few local traders in Sumatra and Java, and only in the biggest ports at the outskirts of the islands
• By the first half of the 16^th century, the Muslim traders became a visible force in the Javanese commerical centers and city-ports.  >From now on, Islam spread more and more inlands.  In the beginning, the interior of these islands was not affected by the new religion and culture.  The islanders remained either animist or Hindu
• The first Colonial Western Power to occupy Indonesian islands was Portugal
• The Portugese were strongly established in Indonesian islands by the 16^th century
• Majapahit Kingdom (Hindu)
• Before Islam spread and got accepted in Sumatra and Java, these two islands were ruled by the Hindu kingdoms.  The most famous Indonesian Hindu kingdom was the Central Javanese Majapahit Kingdom
• 15^th century: Under the pressure of Islam, the new religion spreading in Java, the Hindu refugees from Java fled to Bali and established their own Hindu Kingdom there.
• Mataram Sultanate (Muslim Kingdom)
• By the first half of the 18^th century, Hinduism was pushed out and Islam became the main religion in Sumatra and Java
• Islam also became the state religion in Java, and the Hindu Majapahit Kingdom was replaced by the new Muslim Sultanate (Kingdom), that of Mataram
• The mid-18^th century:  Four Muslim courts were established in Java
• Two courts in Yogyakarta (1755)
• Two courts in Surakarta (1755)
• The Dutch Colonial Period began in 1619, in Batavia (the colonial name for Jakarta)
• The Dutch colonial name for Indonesia was the "East Indies"
• In the 1830s, the Dutch became a so-called "Program of Forced Cultivation"
• The local native Indonesians (the Javanese) did not gladly accept this program
• Rebellions against the Dutch became an ongoing struggle in Indonesia throughout the 19^th century
• the first seeds of Indonesian nationalism were planted during this century (see below)
• Twentieth-Century:
• Indonesian nationalism (see below, Yoruba nationalism in Nigeria)
• 1927:  Young Javanese Muslim nationalist, Sukarno, founds the Nationalist Party of Indonesia
• 1930s-1945:  Japanese occupation of Indonesia
• 1945:  Sukarno proclaims Indonesia's Declaration of Independence.  War against the Dutch
• 1945:  Pantjasila (The Five Points):
• Sukarno's political program and ideological platform, known as Pantjasila (in Indonesian, pantja means five, and sila, point), which consists of the following five points:
1. Nationalism
2. Humanitarianism
3. Democracy
4. Social Justice
5. Belief in God
• 1949:  Sukarno becomes the first president of the republic of Indonesia
• 1967:  Military coup overthrows Sukarno and appoints the new president, Suharto
• New Order period of Suharto's rule
• Post-New Order period or Reformasi, i.e. "reformation"
• 1998: Suharto is overthrown
• 1999: Timur Question, the rise of Islam
• Sukarno's was an authoritarian regime, which continued under his successor, Suharto
• In his book, Islam Observed, American anthropologist, Clifford Geertz, writes about Sukarno and his Pantjasila:
    There was in the Five Points... something for everyone, suitably distributed.  Or at least Sukarno devoutly hoped that there was one.  For he saw himself as the exemplar of this sort of eclectic integration an ideological microcosm: "I am a follower of Karl Marx," he announced once in a speech, "but, on the other hand, I am also a religious man, so I can grasp the entire gamut between Marxism and theism...  I know all the trends and understand them...  I have made myself the meeting place of all trends and ideologies.  I have blended, blended, and blended them until finally they became the present Sukarno."
    As is generally known, things did not work themselves out as harmoniously in the society at large; the world around did not automatically shape itself in the image of its exemplary leader.  By 1957, and indeed before then, the contrast between the cosmos pictured in the Pantjasila and embodied in Sukarno and the chaos obtaining in daily life was great enough for even the most adoring courtier to notice.
• Clifford Geertz.  1971.  Islam Observed: Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia, p. 85.  Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.  (Originally published in 1968).

Video
JVC Video Anthology of World Music and Dance Series.  Southeast Asia IV, Vol. 9.  Indonesia 1:  Bali -- Cut 1.  Gamelan: Sekar jupun.

• Indonesian music ensemble which consists mostly, but not exclusively, of instruments made of bronze, i.e. metal, therefore also known as the metallophones
Video
• Demo:
• Mantle Hood and his UMBC Gamelan Ensemble - The Balinese Semar Pegulingan: 
• instrumental and dance pieces
• Dancers from Indonesian Embassy, Washington, D.C.
• Performance held and recorded in UMBC Albin O. Kuhn Library, December 1988

The Gamelan Ensemble Structure

• Balungan -- the main or 'skeletal melody' played on the sarons (see below)
• Gatra -- four-beat phrase of the balungan
• Colotomy
• Interlocking Structure -- treatment of the main melody, balungan, on other gamelan instruments in a way of the more complex and mutually interlocking rhythmic patterns
• Instruments
1. Gongs
2. Sarons and Genders
3. Drums
4. Other Instruments

 
• I. Gongs
• Susppended Gongs:
• Gong ageng -- big gong
• Gong siyem -- a gong smaller than ageng and usually susppended opposite to it
• Kempul -- a rack of susppended gongs
• Bowl-like Gongs:
• Kenong -- an individual bowl-like gong (like an overturned 'pot' with a knob on its top)
• this type of gong is susppended over a wooden encasement
• Bonang -- a gong in the same shape as kenong but smaller in size
• the bonang-s  are not individual gongs -- they always come in a rack, several of them being supported on a web of string over a common wooden encasement
• they are beaten with a baton-like mallets wrapped with string
• Bonang-s are further divided according to their pitch:
1. Bonang panerus -- high-pitched bonang-s
2. Bonang barung -- low-pitched bonang-s
• Kethuk -- a single bowl-shaped gong with knob on top
• acts as a time beater in the Javanese gamelan
• Kajar -- similar to the kethuk, but flat on top
• acts as a time beater in the Balinese gamelan
• Trompong -- a rack of bonang-like gongs used only in Bali
 
• II. Sarons and Genders
• Saron:
• Instruments with bronze keys shaped like rounded ingots and suspended in a woden case
• Three types of sarons, depending on their size and pitch:
1. Saron peking - high
2. Saron barung - low / middle range
3. Saron demung - lowest range
• The keys are beaten with wooden mallets
• Gender:
• Instruments with thin slablike bronze keys shaped like rounded ingots and suspended in a woden case
• Underneath each key there is a bamboo tube that  amplifies the sound
• Like the bonangs (see above), the genders come in two sizes and ranges:
1. Gender panerus - high pitched
2. Gender barung - low pitched
• The keys are beaten with padded mallets
 
• Jegogan and Jublag
• Big, jegogan, and small, jublag, types of the gender-like instruments used in Bali
• Beaten with rounded padded balls on top of smallets, giving a rather sonorous, softs, and long-held sound

 
• III. Drums:
• Kendang - big drum
• Ketipung - small drum
• IV. Other instruments:
• Cheng-Cheng -- cymbals
• Gambang: xylophonhe: wooden slabs; mallets like those in the gender
• Rebab: fiddle
• Suling: notched bamboo flute, played using the technique of circular breading
• Celempung - big zither
• Siter - small zither
Video
• JVC Video Anthology of World Music and Dance Series.  Southeast Asia IV, Vol. 9.  Indonesia 2:  Java -- Cut 4. (1:25-1:30)

The Gamelan Modes and Tuning Systems

• Patet -- Javanese concept for musical mode, similar to Turkish/Arabic makams / maqams, Iranian dastgah, and/or Indian raga
• Laras -- Javanese / Balinese tuning system basing on two types of scales:
• Slendro -- pentatonic scale / tuning system, i.e. 5 tones: for example, C-D-E-G-A
• Pelog -- heptatonic scale / tuning system, i.e. 7 tones: for example, E-F-G-B^b-B-C-D
• The gamelan instruments are tuned in pairs: one istrument is in one tuning system, e.g. pelog, while the other is in another tuning system, e.g. slendro
• This kind of tuning in paris give a shimmering character to the whole ensemble 

The Types of Gamelan in Bali

• Gamelan gambuh
• a smaller type of gamelan, in the past maintained by Balinese kings, consisting of several very long vertical flutes, called suling gambuh, a rebab, and a few percussions
• used to accompany a kind of opera derived from Majapahit models
• Gamelan gong gede
• using the gong gede, the largest gongs
• played at the old Balinese courts
• unlike the Javanese gamelans, whose instruments are tuned in pairs with both tuning systems, laras, this gamelan is tuned only in one laras, that of pelog, in such a way that only five pitches from this heptatonic scale are used, giving it a pentatonic impression, i.e. that of slendro
• Semar Pegulingan
• A type of the Balinese gamelan ensemble used for the private enjoyment of the court
• Semar, God of Love, and Pegulingan, Private Chambers
• In the 1930s, Colin McPhee found only 2 ensembles of this type in Bali, one of which was out of tune
• In the late 1980s, while at UMBC, Mantle Hood purchased a Semar Pegulingan, an ensemble built in 1981 in Bali, and at the time of its arrival to Baltimore, the only such ensemble outside of Bali

Indonesia: Bali and Hinduism

1.  Kecak

2. Wayang Kulit: Indonesian Shadow Play

• A type of shadow play in Java and Bali based on the two Hindu epics, Mahabharata and Ramayana
• The Ramayana is the epic Sanksrit history of adventures of the king Rama, himself an incarnation of the Lord Krishna as the perfect righteous king
• The Mahabharata
• The epic Sanskrit history of the ancient world
• Maha, 'great', and Bharata, the name of a king and a former ruler of the earth
• The Mahabharata is a part of the four Veda scriptures of knowledge (veda, Sansk. 'knowledge'): Rig, Sama, Atharva, Yajur
• The Bhagavad-Gita
• Source: Bhagavad-Gita As It Is.  Complete Edition.  Los Angeles: The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 1986, pp. xiii-xv ("Setting the Scene")
• The Bhagavad-Gita is just one of the episodes from the Mahabharata
• It tells of event leading up to the present Age of Kali
• It was at the beginning of this age, some fifty centuries ago, that Lord Krishna, the Supreme Godhead, spoke Bhagavad-Gita to His friend and devotee Arjuna
• This discourse between Kirshna and Arjuna took place just before the onset of a war, a great fratricidal conflict between the sons of two brothers, Dhritarastra and Pandu
• Dhritarastra and Pandu were brothers born in the Kuru dynasty, descending from King Bharata, a former ruler of the earth, from whom the name Mahabharata derives
• Because Dhritarastra, the elder brother, was born blind, the throne, that would otherwise be his, was instead passed down to his younger brother Pandu
• When Pandu died at an early age, his five children -- Yudhisthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva -- came under the care of Dhritarastra, who now, for the time being, became the king
• The sons of Dhritarastra, especially the eldest, Duryodhana, disliked and envied their Pandu cousins, and since Dhritarastra wanted his sons to inherit the kingdom, the scene was thus set for trouble and war
• With Dhritarastra's consent, his eldest son, Duryodhana, plotted to kill the young sons of Pandu
• But, the sons of Pandu were cousins of the Lord Krishna himself who, together with their uncle Vidura, protected them from certain death
• During the time these events took place, Lord Krishna had descended to earth and was playing the role of a prince; beyond this role, Krishna was also a nephew of Pandu's wife Kunti or Pritha, the mother of the sons of Pandu; thus, Kirshna, in his double capacity as god and a relative of the sons of Pandu, favored the righteous sons of Pandu and protected them from the onslaught of the sons of Dhritarastra
• After several years of strife between the two parties, the war finally broke out.  While the whole earth took sides with one party or the other, Kirshna himself took the role of a messenger for the sons of Pandu and went to the court of Dhritarastra to plead for peace.  However, his pleas were refused and the war started
• The sons of Pandu recognized Krishna as the Supreme Personality of Godhead, whereas the impious sons of Dhritarastra did not
• Yet, Kishna did not want to be partial: he offered to enter the war according to the desire of the antagonists -- as God, He would not personally fight, but whoever so desired might avail himself of Kirshna's army, and the other side could have Krishna Himself as an advisor and helper
• Duryodhana, the son of Dhritarastra and the leader of his camp, snatched Kirshna's army, while the sons of Pandu took Kirshna Himself for his advices and help
• One of the sons of Pandu, Arjuna, was a famous bowman who drove in a chariot
• It was in this way that Krishna became the charioteer of Arjuna 
• It is at this point that the Bhagavad-Gita, as an episode from the Mahabharata, starts: with the two armies arayed and ready for combat, Dhritarastra, in the opening line, asks his secretary Sanjaya:
"O Sanjaya, after my sons and the sons of Pandu assembled in the place of pilgrimage at Kuruksetra, desiring to fight, what did they do?"
• The Puppets and the Puppeteer
• the puppets are made of leather
• dalang, the puppeteer
• In Java, accompanied by the whole gamelan orchestra
• Gender Wayang
• a set of four gender instruments that accompany the Wayang Kulit
Video
• JVC Video Anthology of World Music and Dance Series.  Southeast Asia IV, Vol. 9.  Indonesia 2:  Java -- Cut 1. (1:16-1:22)
• Arjuna's wedding ceremony
• Immortal Demon King tries to capture the Princess of Heaven
• Arjuna and the Demon King fight
• The Demon King is defeated
• Arjuna marries the beautiful princess

Popular Musics: Indonesia and Turkey

1.  Kroncong: Indonesia

• Tropical Islands: Margaret Mead, National Geographic, and Hollywood (South Pacific, for example, and other production from the 1930s-1940s)

Video
• Now Voyager, 1942
• Bette Davis

2.  Dangdut: Indonesia

• Rhoma Irama

3. Islamic Popular Music in Post-New Order Indonesia

• Source: Charles Capwell - Paper presented at the SEM Meeting, Austin, Texas, 1999
• The "coy relationship" between Islam and the State in Indonesia
• "Tentative dance" between the state and Islam during the so-called New Order period of Suharto's rule
• Bimbo, the name of a popular guitar and vocal trio
• Contrary to Rhoma Irama's appeal to the urban lower clases and his "vulgar idiom," the songs used by Bimbo have and 'air of refinement' (Capwell)
• matching the taste of a progressive and rising middle class
• political neutrality
• Emha Ainun Nadjib, a Muslim Indonesian artist who combines traditional Javanese elements of gamelan music with Western and Arabic instruments and/or sound
• this style may be called the fusion style
• Tya Subiakto, a female artist embracing "Disneyland Arabicity for her performances with her T n T Orchestra" (Capwell)
• some of Subiakto's music videos feature her as a "young and fashionably veiled Muslim woman enthusiastically conducting the whole ensemble from in front of the white grand piano" (Capwell)
• Islamic popular music artists in Indonesia today seem to be integrating, as Capwell says, "Islamic piety with national sentiment and defusing, at least temporarily, the tension between them"
• Capwell call this "the creation of a new public culture in Indonesia, in which Islamically oriented musical performance has played a significant role, has diminished Muslims' sense of inferiority and marginalization and increased their pride and self-confidence.  In the era of Reformasi, we may yet see the successful fusion of Islamic culture with a secular nation in Indonesia"

4.  Arabesk: Turkey

• Ibrahim Tatlises (Ibrahim the "Sweet Voice")
• Küçük Emrah ("Little" Emrah)

West Africa

1.  Traditional Music: Ghana and Nigeria

• Tribes: Yoruba, Akan, Ewe
• Main musical instruments:
1. Drums
2. Bells
3. Rattles
• Talking drums:
• Communication: Exchange of information and the news
• Poetry

 
Video
• African Rhythms -- Wesleyan University

2. Jùjú: Nigerian Popular Music

• Nigeria as a modernizing African society in the 1980s
• The Yoruba: a southwstern Nigerian tribe
• First contacts with Europeans in the 15th century
• The Yoruba nationalism, and other African nationalisms, as a response to European colonialism (see below: Victorian black elite):
• compare this with Indonesian nationalism as a response to the Dutch Colonialism and its "Program of Forced Cultivation" (see above)
• Like in Indonesia (think of the Kroncong, for example), other responses to European colonialism included:
• armed resistance
• labor strikes
• creation of new popular genres in the arts and culture in general
• efflorescence of creativity in language, religion, theater, cuisine, visual arts, dress, dance, music

Christopher Waterman's Study of Jùjú

• Three concepts:
• Music
• Identity
• Power
• The main methodological emphasis is on performance, in the following analytical contexts:
• Social organization
• Symbolic communication
• Political economy
• African urban popular musician
• He is a worker
• He is a culture broker
• His outlook is cosmopolitan
• His culture is syncretic
• African popular culture, including music, is syncretic
• It is the urban pop: the fusion of local styles and Western musical idioms and instruments
• Western instruments:
• Brass band (trombone, saxophone, trumpet)
• Electric guitar
• Accordion
• Western idioms:
• North and South American rhythms
• Political and ideological implications of the jùjú - Identity and Political Economy:
• to reinforce Yoruba unity by encoding political messages in popular song texts
• to sell records over a wide territory
• Projection of an image of superiority of the dominant societies and classes
• Jùjú as the mass-produced music: cassettes, radio, television
• Feuds between the jùjú stars - Power

The Jùjú Historical Background and Influences

• Jùjú music emerged in Lagos between the two world wars: cca. 1920-1940
• 1851: The British seize Lagos and then make it the capital of the Crown Colony of Nigeria
• Early Colonial Influences in the 19th century:
• 1. Freed slaves / emancipados returning from the Americas, especially Brazil: Sierra Leon, Liberia (Freetown), Nigeria
• The Latin American emancipados were mostly Catholic and upon their arival to Lagos they contributed to syncretic transformation of traditional Yoruba religious practice
• This introduced Spanish and Portuguese Catholic songs, as well as the guitar, the instrument on which these songs were accompanied, and such dances as samba
• 2. West African Slaves, mostly Yoruba, freed on their route to the Americas by the British antislavery patrols and deposited in Freetown, Sierra Leone
• These freed slaves adopted Protestant religion and emulated British "high" culture and became close collaborators of British colonial rule
• This group of freed slaves in West Africa created the first black/African burgeoi class, the Victorian black elite
• This class needed its own forms of entertainment, like its counterparts in the 19th century China (Beijing Opera) or Japan (Kabuki and Bunraku)
• By the 20th century, this black burgeoi class created its own night life, together with ballroom dances, recitals, movie projections
• This burgeoi class became the first black social elite, the Victorian black elite
• Colonial Racism: European colonists showed scorn toward African emulation of European culture and social behavior -- they regarded members of African educated elite as inferior hybrids
• This colonial influence on, and change of, African social and class structures created both tensions and agreements between the indegineous community of Lagos and the Victorian black elite
• Agreements between the indeginous community and the Victorian black elite led to the rise of Yoruba nationalism in the 19th century
• Colonial Influences between the World Wars:
1. Africanized Brass Bands:
• 1920s-1930s: Africanized marching band style 
• Marching bands were forerunners of the dance band highlife style
• Commercial recordings of brass bands
2. Ballroom Dance Band Music - Highlife:
• Ballroom dance bands were composed of musicians from the Police or Regimental Brass Bands (Military Brass Bands)
• Waltzes, fox-trots, quicksteps, rumbas
3. European Christian Missionaries
• Western harmonies and diatonic melodies
• Lagosian Guitar Music: Palmwine and 'Native Blues':
• Music of non-elite migrant workers
• Their music was performed in informal settings, such as palmwine bars, not in upper-class and elitest parlors or salons, the latter being the places for brass bands and highlife ballroom dance band music
• Migrant workers' style became known as palmwine music (West Africa)
• Palmwine songs were accompanied with guitar, madoline or concertina
• Guitar styles included a mix of the follwoing: 
• Spanish
• Maringa (related to the Dominican merengue)
• Ragtime
• European fox-trot and waltzes

Post WWII

• Technological Boom After WWII: Amplification of instruments
• Most jùjú bands were quartets:
• banjo
• tambourine
• bottle-gourd rattle
• supporting vocalist
• Choral singing with call and response
• Christian hymnody patterns (I-IV-V)
• 1950s:  After the WWH jùjú quartets became enlarged to include 8-10 musicians
• These bigger jùjú bands were now well suited for large social dance events

1960s-1980s

• 1967-1970: Nigerian Civil War
• 1970s: Oil Boom
• 1970s: Jùjú became the dominant Yoruba style and popular music
• Formation of a high elite: government administrative and private sector burgeoisie, highly educated professionals and technocrats
• emergence of the first millionaire jùjú superstars
• Bandleaders adopt such names as: King, Senator, Admiral, Chief Commander, Captain
• Mid-1970s: the size of jùjú bands increased to 15 or more musicians
• Production of commercial recordings - music industry
• Pirated recordings: records, tapes, cassettes
• Cassette player becomes much more widely accessible 
• Bootleg market
• 1970: Copyright law in Nigeria
• 1980s: the gap between rich and poor jùjúmusicians widened

The Jùjú Stars

• Chief Commander Ebenezer Obey
• King Sunny Ade
• Syncretism of styles: mixing traditional idioms with Western popular music 
• Western technology (new musical instruments, such as synthesizers and keyboards)
• Political economy of Nigeria (cash flow and music industry)
• Political context (the use of jùjú music for political purposes)
• Yoruba Nationalism (consolidation of Yoruba nationalist ideology through jùjú music)
 
Video
• Jùjú