A Framework for Understanding the Development of Educational Software
Chris Quintana, Joseph Krajcik and Elliot Soloway

1. Introduction: Motivation and Goals
   • Focus in this chapter on learning, learners in life-long learning (pre-K through post-16)
     • Central focus of HCI: users
       • User-Centered Design
       • User has knowledge of task, domain; user has no knowledge of computer-based tool
       • Norman's language: address Gulfs of Execution & Evaluation
     • Learners, Learning
       • Learner-Centered Design
       • Address Gulf of Expertise
         User (learner) does NOT have knowledge of domain and task; user does not have knowledge of tool.
         Must help learner acquire understanding of domain and task as well as understanding of tool
   • Distinguish Education vs. Training
   • Framework for chapter; Organization of presentation
     Identify differences in "gap-crossing strategies"
     • Post-WW II theories of learning have guided development of educational software
       Behaviorist: Gagne, Merrill, Instructional Systems Design
       Information Processing: Anderson's Algebra Tutor
       Social Constructivist: Papert's Logo, Hi-CE's Model-It
     • Identify differences in development process (analysis, design, evaluation) based on theory of learning
       All three theories result in the use of the same GUI interface design elements
       Differences in development process, however
2. Description: Three Theories of Learning & Their Gap-Crossing Strategy
   • Behaviorist Theory of Learning:
     • Primary focus: task analysis (e.g., detailed breakdown of complex process into small steps; focus on training to criterion on each step)
     • Secondary focus: learner analysis (e.g., simple progression through stages of success)
     • Gap-crossing strategy (how to get the learner across gulf of expertise, i.e., get learner to acquire understanding of task and domain?)
       Drill and practice on isolated components of task
     • Math Blasters, Carmen San Diego
   • Information Processing Theory of Learning
     • Primary focus: task analysis AND learner analysis (e.g., build detailed model of user; use model to direct instruction)
     • Gap-crossing strategy
       Practice on components of task, but do so in the context of complete task and under watchful eye of computer-based tutor using detailed model of user
     • Anderson's Algebra Tutor
   • Social Constructivist Theory of Learning
     • Primary focus: work (work is more complex than task), learner and learners, context (social activities in the work)
     • Gap-crossing strategy
       Practice on components of work, with collaborators, in context of work, with scaffolding provided by technology and by human mentor
     • Papert's Logo, Hi-CE's Model-It & Symphony
3. Impact of Theory of Learning on Development Process
   • Development process is relatively standard: analysis, design, evaluation
   • But, differences in the actual process occur, e.g.,
     • Analysis:
       Differences arise in what issues analysis focuses on
       Behaviorist approach focuses on task analysis;
       Social constructivist focuses on learning needs and on scaffolding strategies to address needs.
     • Design:
       All use same graphical user interface elements
     • Evaluation:
       Behaviorist: focus on impact of technology - to what extent did learning occur?
       Social constructivist: focus, in addition, on impact with technology - to what extent did the various scaffolding strategies aid learning?
4. Concluding Remarks: Open Issues
   • What is the impact of having multiple theories of learning on educational software development?
   • What is the impact of the rapid deployment of new technologies (e.g., palm-sized computers) on educational software development?
   • Why is the evaluation of technology in education so hard?
   • How to respond to Stoll's (and others) critique?
   • What new evaluation methodologies are being developed?
   • Why is the development of educational software so costly?
   • Why is the adoption of educational software so slow?
   • What is the prognosis for the future: will educational software have a significant impact on education?